INDIAN POLITICAL IDEAS | POLITICAL THINKERS AND IDEOLOGIES

1. Introduction

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar (1883–1966), popularly known as Veer Savarkar, occupies an important and contested position in the intellectual history of modern Indian political thought. He is particularly associated with the development and articulation of the ideology of Hindutva, which has significantly influenced debates concerning Indian nationalism, cultural identity, religion, citizenship and the nature of the Indian nation.

Savarkar’s political philosophy emerged in the context of British colonial rule, the growth of Indian nationalism, the development of different religious and cultural identities, and debates over the political future of India. He sought to conceptualise Indian nationhood through a common historical, cultural and civilisational identity.

His most influential ideological work, Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu?, was originally published in 1923 under the pseudonym A Maratha. In this work, Savarkar attempted to distinguish Hindutva from Hinduism and presented Hindu identity as a broader political, cultural and national category.

For Savarkar, the Indian nation was not simply a geographical or territorial entity. It was also a historical and cultural community shaped by common ancestry, civilisation, traditions, historical memories and attachment to the land.

Hindutva therefore represents a particular conception of Indian nationalism in which cultural unity and the historical consciousness of the Hindu community occupy a central position.

2. Brief Biographical Background

Swatantryaveer Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and his greatness… 🚩🇮🇳🙂 – Chaitanya’s Chants!

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar (1883–1966)

• Born: 28 May 1883, Bhagur, Maharashtra.
• Political revolutionary, writer, historian and political thinker.
• Associated with revolutionary nationalism during the colonial period.
• Developed the political and cultural conception of Hindutva.
• Served as president of the Hindu Mahasabha from 1937 to 1943.

Savarkar became politically active during his student years and was associated with revolutionary organisations opposing British colonial rule. He founded the organisation Abhinav Bharat and was connected with revolutionary activities in India and Britain.

In 1910, he was arrested in connection with revolutionary activities and subsequently transported to the Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands, where he spent several years before being transferred to imprisonment and restrictions in India.

His political writings included historical works and ideological texts. Among his important publications are:

1. The Indian War of Independence of 1857 (1909).
2. Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu? (1923).
3. Hindu Pad-Padashahi (1925).
4. Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History (1963).

His later political activities were closely associated with the Hindu Mahasabha and the articulation of Hindu political nationalism.

3. Meaning and Concept of Hindutva

The term Hindutva is derived from the word Hindu and refers to Hindu-ness or the essential character of Hindu identity.

Savarkar used the concept to describe a collective cultural, historical and national identity. He argued that Hindutva was much broader than Hinduism as a system of religious beliefs and practices.

According to him, Hinduism primarily referred to religious traditions, philosophical beliefs, rituals and forms of worship, whereas Hindutva represented the collective identity of the Hindu people.

Thus, Hindutva was not merely a religious concept; it was a political and cultural conception of nationhood.

Hindutva and Hinduism: A conceptual distinction

Hinduism	Hindutva
Primarily refers to religious traditions and beliefs.	Refers to a broader cultural and national identity.
Concerned with religious practices, philosophies and traditions.	Concerned with historical consciousness, cultural unity and nationhood.
Includes diverse schools of religious and philosophical thought.	Seeks to establish a collective Hindu identity.
Primarily religious in orientation.	Primarily political and cultural in Savarkar’s formulation.

This distinction is fundamental to understanding Savarkar’s political philosophy. He attempted to transform Hindu identity from a predominantly religious category into a broader basis for political and national mobilisation.

4. Savarkar’s Definition of Hindutva

Savarkar’s understanding of Hindutva is most clearly explained in his book Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu? (1923).

He identified three major elements of Hindu identity:

1. Common geographical territory.
2. Common blood or ancestry.
3. Common civilisation and culture.

These elements formed the foundation of his conception of Hindu nationhood.

He famously defined a Hindu as:

“A Hindu means a person who regards this land of Bharatvarsha, from the Indus to the Seas, as his Fatherland as well as his Holyland.”

This definition is central to his political thought.

The distinction between Fatherland and Holyland is particularly significant. Fatherland refers to the geographical territory associated with one’s ancestry and national belonging, whereas Holyland refers to the land regarded as sacred because of one’s religious and spiritual traditions.

For Savarkar, a Hindu was someone whose ancestral homeland and sacred homeland were both located within India.

This formulation placed territorial attachment and cultural-religious heritage at the centre of his understanding of national identity.

5. Three Fundamental Elements of Hindutva

Savarkar’s conception of Hindutva can be understood through three interconnected elements.

5.1 Common Fatherland (Pitrubhu)

The first element is a shared geographical homeland.

Savarkar argued that the Hindu community was historically connected with the Indian subcontinent, which constituted its ancestral homeland. This territorial connection provided the geographical foundation of Hindu national identity.

The concept of Pitrubhu (Fatherland) signifies:

• Common ancestral territory.
• Historical association with the Indian subcontinent.
• A sense of belonging to a shared geographical space.
• Collective attachment to the land of one’s ancestors.

For Savarkar, geographical unity was essential to the formation of a nation.

5.2 Common Holyland (Punyabhu)

The second element is the shared sacred or religious-cultural homeland.

Savarkar argued that the Indian subcontinent was the birthplace and sacred land of Hinduism and other indigenous religious traditions, including Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.

The concept of Punyabhu (Holyland) signifies:

• Common sacred geographical origins.
• Shared religious and cultural heritage.
• Historical continuity of indigenous traditions.
• Spiritual attachment to the Indian subcontinent.

This criterion had important implications for his definition of national membership. Since Islam and Christianity originated outside India, Savarkar considered their followers’ sacred geographical centres to be outside the country.

Consequently, Muslims and Christians could regard India as their Fatherland but, under his definition, could not fulfil the Holyland criterion in the same way as followers of religions originating in India.

This distinction became one of the most controversial aspects of his conception of Indian nationhood.

5.3 Common Culture and Civilisation

The third element is a shared cultural and civilisational identity.

Savarkar maintained that the Hindu community was connected through a common historical experience, cultural traditions, literature, mythology, historical memories and civilisational heritage.

He emphasised the importance of:

• Sanskrit as a major source of cultural continuity.
• Common historical memories.
• Shared cultural traditions and customs.
• Common heroes and historical experiences.
• Civilisational consciousness.
• Collective identity and national solidarity.

For Savarkar, a nation required more than physical proximity. It needed a shared consciousness of historical and cultural belonging.

Conceptual framework: Three foundations of Hindutva

HINDUTVA

Savarkar’s conception of Hindu national identity

PitrubhuCommon Fatherland

PunyabhuCommon Holyland

CultureCommon Civilisation

Collective Hindu Identity and National Consciousness

Analytical representation of the principal elements of Savarkar’s Hindutva.

These three elements together formed the basis of Savarkar’s conception of Hindu nationhood. They demonstrate that his understanding of national identity was based on a combination of territory, ancestry, culture and sacred geography.

6. Hindutva and the Concept of Nation

One of the most significant contributions of Savarkar to Indian political thought was his attempt to provide a distinct definition of the Indian nation.

His conception of nationalism differed from territorial nationalism, which generally regards all people inhabiting a particular geographical territory as members of a common nation, irrespective of their religious or cultural backgrounds.

Savarkar emphasised cultural and historical nationalism.

6.1 Cultural Nationalism

Savarkar argued that a nation was not merely a geographical unit or an administrative arrangement. It was a historically evolved cultural community.

According to this understanding, common ancestry, historical experiences, traditions and civilisational heritage were essential to national identity.

He considered Hindu civilisation to be the principal foundation of Indian national consciousness.

6.2 Historical Consciousness

Savarkar placed considerable importance on historical memory.

He believed that the Hindu community needed to develop a consciousness of its historical achievements, struggles, political experiences and cultural heritage.

He interpreted various historical conflicts and invasions as important factors in shaping Hindu collective identity.

His historical writings attempted to reconstruct the past in a way that would strengthen political consciousness and collective solidarity.

6.3 National Unity

Savarkar believed that internal divisions weakened the political strength of the Hindu community.

He particularly emphasised the need to overcome caste divisions, regional differences and social fragmentation.

He wanted to establish a cohesive Hindu community capable of acting collectively in political affairs.

6.4 Hindu National Identity

Savarkar regarded Hindus as a distinct nation because of their common geographical, cultural and historical identity.

His conception therefore placed the Hindu community at the centre of Indian nationhood.

This position differed from the inclusive territorial nationalism associated with several other Indian nationalist thinkers, including Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.

7. Hindutva and Hindu Rashtra

The concept of Hindu Rashtra (Hindu Nation) is closely associated with Savarkar’s understanding of Hindutva.

For him, Hindus constituted a distinct national community with a shared civilisational identity. He argued that this community should possess political organisation and collective strength.

The idea of Hindu Rashtra involved the following dimensions:

1. Cultural unity: The Hindu community should recognise its shared civilisation and historical heritage.
2. Political organisation: Hindus should develop collective political consciousness and organisation.
3. National self-assertion: The Hindu community should protect its cultural and political interests.
4. Military preparedness: Savarkar emphasised physical strength, military organisation and the capacity to defend the nation.
5. National consolidation: Internal social divisions should be reduced to strengthen collective unity.

It is important to distinguish between Savarkar’s cultural conception of the Hindu nation and the precise institutional structure of a theocratic state.

Savarkar did not simply advocate a state governed by Hindu priests or religious authorities. In his political statements, he also argued for common citizenship and equal civil rights irrespective of religion. This creates an important distinction between his conception of a Hindu cultural nation and his stated principles concerning the treatment of individual citizens.

Nevertheless, his definition of national belonging placed Muslims and Christians in a different position from communities whose sacred geography originated in India.

This tension between cultural nationhood and equal citizenship is central to scholarly discussions of Savarkar’s political philosophy. Cambridge Core+2

8. Hindutva and the Question of Citizenship

Savarkar’s political thought raises an important question: What should be the relationship between national identity and citizenship?

He distinguished, in effect, between the cultural identity of the nation and the legal rights of individuals living within the state.

In his presidential address to the Hindu Mahasabha in 1937, he expressed support for an Indian state that would not discriminate among citizens in matters such as franchise, public employment, public offices and taxation on grounds of religion or race.

This position indicates that his conception of political citizenship was not identical to his definition of Hindu national identity.

Two dimensions can therefore be identified:

Cultural nationhood	Political citizenship
Based on Hindu cultural and civilisational identity.	Based on membership of the Indian state.
Emphasises common ancestry and sacred geography.	Emphasises civil and political rights.
Places Hindus at the centre of national identity.	Savarkar stated that citizens should not face religious discrimination in specified civic matters.
Raises questions about the cultural position of religious minorities.	Recognises the possibility of equal legal citizenship.

This distinction is important when evaluating Savarkar. His position cannot be adequately explained by treating cultural nationhood and the legal status of citizens as exactly the same thing.

At the same time, critics argue that a national identity defined through Hindu civilisational criteria creates an unequal symbolic relationship between the majority community and religious minorities.

9. Savarkar’s Views on Religion and Politics

Savarkar’s approach to religion was distinctive.

Unlike thinkers who placed religious faith, spirituality or moral self-discipline at the centre of political life, Savarkar emphasised the political and cultural significance of Hindu identity.

He was critical of excessive ritualism, superstition and practices that he believed weakened social and national development.

His approach can be understood through the following dimensions.

9.1 Religion as a Cultural Force

Savarkar regarded religion as an important element of historical and cultural identity. However, he did not consider adherence to a particular religious doctrine or ritual to be the sole basis of Hindu identity.

He attempted to incorporate different indigenous religious traditions into a broader Hindu civilisational framework.

9.2 Rationalism and Scientific Outlook

Savarkar advocated rational thinking, scientific knowledge and practical reasoning.

He criticised superstition and blind religious orthodoxy. He also questioned practices that, in his opinion, obstructed social progress.

His emphasis on scientific reasoning was connected with his larger objective of building a modern, organised and powerful nation.

9.3 Political Organisation over Religious Ritualism

For Savarkar, political unity and collective strength were more important than differences in religious worship.

He wanted Hindu society to develop a common political consciousness, irrespective of internal differences in religious practices and philosophical beliefs.

Thus, Hindutva was designed as a comprehensive cultural and political identity rather than a narrow religious creed.

10. Savarkar’s Views on Caste and Social Reform

An important aspect of Savarkar’s political thought was his criticism of caste-based discrimination and social fragmentation.

He believed that caste divisions weakened Hindu society and prevented the emergence of a united national community.

He considered social consolidation necessary for Hindu political organisation.

His approach to social reform included the following:

10.1 Opposition to Untouchability

Savarkar opposed untouchability and argued that no section of Hindu society should be excluded from common social life.

He supported the participation of historically excluded communities in public and religious activities.

10.2 Social Equality

He advocated greater social integration among different Hindu castes.

He believed that caste-based divisions undermined collective identity and political strength.

10.3 Inter-caste Dining

Savarkar encouraged inter-caste dining as a means of reducing social barriers.

He regarded common dining as an important practical instrument for promoting social unity.

10.4 Temple Entry

He supported the opening of temples to communities traditionally excluded from religious institutions.

His social reform activities in Ratnagiri included efforts to promote temple access and social integration.

10.5 Patit Pavan Mandir

One of the notable initiatives associated with Savarkar’s social reform activities was the establishment of the Patit Pavan Mandir in Ratnagiri in 1931.

The temple was intended to be accessible to Hindus across caste divisions, including communities historically subjected to untouchability.

His efforts demonstrate that his political philosophy was not confined to questions of religious identity and nationalism; it also addressed internal social inequalities.

However, scholars distinguish his programme of caste reform from more radical anti-caste movements, particularly those that sought to dismantle the caste system and its underlying social hierarchy altogether.

Savarkar’s principal objective was the consolidation and integration of Hindu society. Oxford Academic+1

11. Savarkar’s Views on Military Strength and National Security

Savarkar attached considerable importance to military preparedness and national defence.

He believed that political independence and national sovereignty required physical strength, military organisation and the capacity to defend territorial integrity.

His approach was influenced by his interpretation of Indian history, particularly the experience of foreign invasions and the political decline of Indian powers.

His principal arguments included:

• A nation must possess adequate military strength to protect its independence.
• National defence should not depend entirely on moral appeals.
• Physical strength and political organisation are essential for national survival.
• Hindus should acquire military training and develop a sense of collective discipline.
• National security should be treated as a central concern of political leadership.

His emphasis on militarisation was also reflected in his political slogan:

“Hinduize all Politics and Militarize Hindudom.”

This slogan expressed his desire to organise Hindu political life and increase the military preparedness of the Hindu community.

His approach differed from Gandhi’s emphasis on non-violence as a central principle of political action.

12. Savarkar and the Indian National Movement

Savarkar’s political career was closely connected with the revolutionary nationalist movement and subsequent debates over India’s national identity.

His contribution needs to be understood in different historical phases.

12.1 Revolutionary Nationalism

During his early political career, Savarkar participated in revolutionary activities directed against British colonial rule.

He was associated with Abhinav Bharat and advocated armed resistance to colonial authority.

His book The Indian War of Independence of 1857 attempted to present the uprising of 1857 as a coordinated war of independence rather than merely a military mutiny.

Interestingly, his earlier interpretation of 1857 emphasised Hindu-Muslim cooperation against British rule. This is significant because his later formulation of Hindutva placed much greater emphasis on distinct Hindu political identity. Historians have examined this intellectual development rather than assuming that all of his early and later positions were identical. Cambridge Core+1

12.2 Development of Hindutva

During his imprisonment and subsequent political activities, Savarkar developed his conception of Hindu national identity.

His 1923 publication, Essentials of Hindutva, became the foundational text of this ideology.

12.3 Leadership of the Hindu Mahasabha

Savarkar became president of the Hindu Mahasabha in 1937 and continued in that position for several successive years.

Under his leadership, the organisation articulated a more developed programme of Hindu political mobilisation.

He opposed the Congress approach to national politics and advocated a distinct political organisation for Hindu interests.

12.4 Position during the Second World War

During the Second World War, Savarkar supported the military recruitment of Indians into the British Indian armed forces.

He considered military training important for strengthening the Indian population and preparing it for future political and military challenges.

His position differed from the Congress-led mass movement against British rule during this period.

13. Savarkar and Other Indian Political Thinkers

Savarkar’s political ideas become clearer when compared with other major thinkers of modern India.

Thinker	Conception of Indian nationalism
V. D. Savarkar	Cultural and civilisational nationalism centred on Hindu identity.
Mahatma Gandhi	Inclusive nationalism rooted in ethical principles, religious coexistence and non-violence.
Jawaharlal Nehru	Secular, territorial and composite nationalism based on common citizenship and pluralism.
Rabindranath Tagore	Humanistic and universalist approach, critical of aggressive nationalism.
B. R. Ambedkar	Constitutional democracy, social equality, individual rights and annihilation of caste.

Savarkar and Gandhi

The differences between Savarkar and Gandhi were particularly significant.

• Savarkar emphasised cultural nationalism, whereas Gandhi emphasised ethical and inclusive nationalism.
• Savarkar advocated military preparedness, whereas Gandhi regarded non-violence as a central political and moral principle.
• Savarkar approached Hindu identity primarily through cultural and political categories, whereas Gandhi placed considerable importance on religious ethics and spiritual values.
• Their approaches to Hindu-Muslim relations and the meaning of Indian nationhood were substantially different.

Savarkar and Nehru

Savarkar and Nehru represented different conceptions of national identity.

Savarkar emphasised Hindu civilisation as the foundation of national identity, whereas Nehru emphasised India’s composite historical heritage and secular political institutions.

For Nehru, national unity could be built through common citizenship despite religious, linguistic and cultural differences.

For Savarkar, cultural and historical identification with Hindu civilisation was central to national consciousness.

Savarkar and Ambedkar

Both thinkers criticised aspects of caste-based social discrimination, but their approaches and objectives differed.

Savarkar sought to overcome caste divisions to consolidate Hindu society.

Ambedkar developed a more fundamental critique of caste as a system of graded inequality and argued for its annihilation through social transformation, constitutional safeguards and individual rights.

This comparison highlights the difference between social integration within a cultural nation and a radical restructuring of the social order.

14. Critical Evaluation of Savarkar’s Hindutva

Savarkar’s conception of Hindutva has generated considerable academic and political debate. Its significance lies in its attempt to redefine Indian nationalism through cultural identity, historical consciousness and political organisation. However, several aspects of his theory have also attracted criticism.

14.1 Contributions and Positive Dimensions

1. Development of a distinct theory of nationalism

Savarkar provided a systematic formulation of cultural nationalism by connecting geographical territory, historical experience and civilisational identity.

2. Emphasis on national unity

He recognised that caste divisions, social fragmentation and internal conflicts could weaken collective political organisation.

3. Advocacy of social reform

His opposition to untouchability, support for inter-caste dining and temple-entry initiatives contributed to debates on Hindu social reform.

4. Emphasis on national security

He highlighted the importance of military preparedness, political organisation and national defence in achieving and maintaining sovereignty.

5. Rationalist outlook

His criticism of superstition, excessive ritualism and social practices that obstructed progress reflected his commitment to rationalism and modernisation.

6. Contribution to political thought

His writings introduced an influential framework for understanding the relationship between cultural identity, nationalism and political power in modern India.

14.2 Major Criticisms and Limitations

1. Exclusionary conception of nationalism

The most important criticism concerns Savarkar’s definition of national identity through the Fatherland and Holyland criteria.

Since Islam and Christianity originated outside India, Muslims and Christians could not satisfy his definition of Hindu national belonging in the same manner as followers of indigenous religions.

Critics argue that this creates a hierarchy of national belonging and complicates the idea of equal cultural membership.

2. Tension with composite nationalism

Savarkar’s conception of the nation differs from the inclusive territorial nationalism advocated by Gandhi, Nehru and other nationalists.

Critics argue that India’s diverse religious and cultural communities cannot be adequately represented through a single civilisational identity.

3. Majoritarian implications

The central position given to Hindu identity raises questions about the relationship between majority culture and minority rights.

Critics maintain that a cultural conception of the nation centred on the majority community may create unequal political and symbolic positions for religious minorities.

4. Emphasis on collective identity

Savarkar’s approach gives considerable importance to the unity of the Hindu community.

Critics argue that excessive emphasis on collective identity may undermine the recognition of individual differences and the independent political identities of various social groups.

5. Contested interpretation of history

Savarkar’s interpretation of Indian history, particularly his treatment of Hindu-Muslim conflicts and historical invasions, has been questioned by historians.

Scholars have argued that his historical narrative sometimes gives prominence to religious conflict at the expense of other economic, political and social explanations.

6. Tension between cultural nationalism and constitutional pluralism

His stated support for equal civic rights raises a significant theoretical question: Can a state guarantee equal citizenship while its underlying conception of nationhood privileges one cultural community?

This remains an important point of debate in the evaluation of Savarkar’s political philosophy.

Contemporary academic scholarship offers different interpretations of these issues. Janaki Bakhle examines the complexity of Savarkar’s writings, including his positions on caste and social reform, while Vikram Visana analyses the historical development of his increasingly exclusionary conception of Hindu nationalism. Oxford Academic+3

15. Contemporary Relevance of Hindutva

Savarkar’s ideas remain relevant to contemporary discussions of Indian politics, nationalism, secularism and cultural identity.

Several dimensions of contemporary relevance can be identified.

15.1 Debate on Indian National Identity

Hindutva continues to influence debates concerning the foundations of Indian nationhood.

An important question is whether Indian national identity should be primarily territorial and constitutional or based on a particular historical and cultural civilisation.

15.2 Debate on Secularism

Savarkar’s distinction between cultural nationhood and individual citizenship provides an important framework for examining the relationship between religion and the state.

It also raises questions about the meaning of secularism in a society characterised by extensive religious diversity.

15.3 Majority-Minority Relations

His definition of Hindu national identity remains relevant to discussions about the political and cultural position of religious minorities.

The debate concerns how cultural heritage, majority identity and minority rights can coexist within a democratic political system.

15.4 National Security and Military Preparedness

Savarkar’s emphasis on military strength and national defence remains relevant to contemporary discussions about sovereignty, strategic autonomy and national security.

15.5 Social Reform and Caste

His criticism of untouchability and efforts to promote social integration remain relevant to discussions concerning caste discrimination and social equality.

However, contemporary anti-caste debates also require consideration of the more fundamental structural critique developed by B. R. Ambedkar.

15.6 Politics of Historical Memory

Savarkar’s writings illustrate how interpretations of the past can influence contemporary political identities.

The relationship between historical memory, cultural pride and political mobilisation remains an important subject of academic research.

16. Conclusion

V. D. Savarkar occupies a significant position in modern Indian political thought because of his systematic formulation of Hindutva as a theory of cultural and political nationalism.

Through Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu?, he attempted to define Hindu identity beyond religious beliefs and rituals by incorporating geographical attachment, common ancestry, historical experiences and civilisational heritage.

His conception of Hindutva rested primarily on the ideas of Pitrubhu (Fatherland), Punyabhu (Holyland) and common culture. These elements provided the foundation for his understanding of Hindu national identity and the idea of Hindu Rashtra.

Savarkar also emphasised social consolidation, rationalism, military preparedness and national sovereignty. His opposition to untouchability and efforts towards Hindu social integration formed important aspects of his social and political programme.

Nevertheless, his conception of nationalism raises fundamental questions about religious pluralism, minority rights, equal citizenship and the relationship between cultural identity and the modern democratic state.

Thus, Savarkar’s political philosophy must be understood through both its contribution to the development of cultural nationalism and the controversies surrounding its conception of national membership. His ideas continue to occupy an important place in debates concerning the nature of Indian nationalism and the relationship between culture, religion, society and politics.

17. Important Concepts and Terminology

The following terms are particularly important for understanding Savarkar’s political philosophy.

Concept	Meaning
Hindutva	Hindu-ness; a cultural and political conception of Hindu identity.
Hindu Rashtra	Hindu nation.
Pitrubhu	Fatherland or ancestral homeland.
Punyabhu	Holyland or sacred homeland.
Sanskriti	Culture or civilisation.
Cultural Nationalism	Nationalism based on shared cultural and historical identity.
Hindu Sangathan	Organisation and consolidation of Hindus.
Militarisation	Development of military preparedness and strength.
Social Consolidation	Reduction of internal divisions to strengthen collective unity.
Rationalism	Emphasis on reason, scientific thinking and critical inquiry.

18. Important Books and Writings of V. D. Savarkar

Hindutva: Who is a Hindu ? by V.D. Savarkar | Goodreads

1. Essentials of Hindutva (1923)

His foundational work explaining the meaning of Hindutva and the basis of Hindu national identity. Later editions appeared under the title Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu?

Buy Indian War Of Independence 1857 book : Veer Savarkar , 9353227631, 9789353227630 – SapnaOnline.com India

2. The Indian War of Independence of 1857 (1909)

Presents Savarkar’s interpretation of the uprising of 1857 as a war of independence against British rule.

Hindu-Padpadshahi (Paperback) – Walmart.com

3. Hindu Pad-Padashahi (1925)

Discusses the history and political achievements of the Maratha power and its relationship with Hindu political ascendancy.

Veer Savarkar – Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History – HINDU SAHITYA KENDRA (HSK) – HINDU BOOK SHOP

4. Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History (1963)

Examines Indian history through Savarkar’s interpretation of periods of political resistance, military achievement and Hindu historical consciousness.

19. Suggested Academic Readings and References

For a deeper understanding of Savarkar’s political philosophy, the following primary and secondary sources are useful.

Primary sources

1. Savarkar, V. D. (1923). Essentials of Hindutva.
2. Savarkar, V. D. (1909). The Indian War of Independence of 1857.
3. Savarkar, V. D. (1963). Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History.
4. Savarkar, V. D. Hindu Rashtra Darshan.

Secondary academic readings

5. Bakhle, Janaki (2024). Savarkar and the Making of Hindutva. Princeton University Press.
6. Visana, Vikram (2021). “Savarkar before Hindutva: Sovereignty, Republicanism, and Populism in India, c.1900–1920.” Modern Intellectual History.
7. Visana, Vikram (2022). “Glory and Humiliation in the Making of V. D. Savarkar’s Hindu Nationalism.” The Historical Journal.
8. Devare, Aparna (2009). “Secularizing Religion: Hindu Extremism as a Modernist Discourse.” International Political Sociology.

Further scholarly references:

• Princeton University Press – Savarkar and the Making of Hindutva.
• Cambridge University Press – Savarkar before Hindutva.
• Cambridge University Press – Glory and Humiliation in the Making of Savarkar’s Hindu Nationalism.
• Oxford Academic – Secularizing Religion.

20. Important Questions for Academic Preparation

Long-answer questions

1. Discuss the concept of Hindutva as propounded by V. D. Savarkar.
2. Examine Savarkar’s conception of Indian nationalism.
3. Explain the distinction between Hindutva and Hinduism.
4. Critically evaluate Savarkar’s idea of Hindu Rashtra.
5. Analyse Savarkar’s views on religion, culture and national identity.
6. Discuss Savarkar’s contribution to Hindu social reform.
7. Examine the relationship between Hindutva and secularism in Savarkar’s political philosophy.

Short-answer questions

1. What is Hindutva?
2. What does Savarkar mean by Pitrubhu?
3. Explain the concept of Punyabhu.
4. What is the difference between Hinduism and Hindutva?
5. What is meant by Hindu Rashtra?
6. Explain Savarkar’s views on untouchability.
7. What was the significance of the Patit Pavan Mandir?

Key takeaway for revision

Savarkar’s Hindutva is based on the combination of territory, ancestry, culture and sacred geography. Its three fundamental elements are:

• Pitrubhu – Fatherland.
• Punyabhu – Holyland.
• Common culture and civilisation.

Its central theoretical concern is the relationship between Hindu cultural identity, national unity and political sovereignty.

Editorial note: This material distinguishes Savarkar’s own arguments from subsequent scholarly interpretations and criticisms. That distinction is particularly important when studying contested political thinkers at the university level.