Political Theory: Nature, Scope, and Evolution

1. Introduction: What is Political Theory?

Political Theory is the most abstract and philosophical branch of Political Science. It is the discipline that seeks to understand, explain, and evaluate the phenomena of the state, government, power, and human political behavior. Unlike political administration (which deals with the “how”) or comparative politics (which deals with the “what”), political theory deals with the “why” and the “should.”

Definitions:

George Sabine defines it as, “Political theory is, quite simply, man’s attempt to consciously understand and solve the problems of his group life and organization.”
Andrew Hacker states, “Political theory is a body of philosophical and scientific knowledge which explains the nature of political behaviour and the state.”
David Held views it as a “network of concepts and generalizations about political life involving ideas, assumptions, and statements about the nature, purpose, and key features of government, state, and society.”

In essence, Political Theory is a combination of Political Science (empirical facts) and Political Philosophy (moral values). It asks three types of questions:

Empirical: What is happening? (e.g., How does a bill become a law?)
Logical: What does it mean? (e.g., What is the definition of “Liberty”?)
Normative: What should happen? (e.g., Is democracy the best form of government?)

2. The Nature of Political Theory

The nature of political theory is complex because it sits at the intersection of science and philosophy.

A. Political Theory as Philosophy (Normative)

In its traditional sense, political theory is a branch of moral philosophy.

Focus: It is concerned with values, ideals, and ethics. It asks questions about “Justice,” “Good Life,” and the “Ideal State.”
Method: It relies on contemplation, logic, and reasoning rather than data collection.
Thinkers: Plato, Rousseau, Kant, and Hegel typify this nature. They were less concerned with how states actually functioned and more concerned with how they ought to function.

B. Political Theory as Science (Empirical)

In its modern sense (especially after WWII), political theory attempts to be scientific.

Focus: It is concerned with facts, behavior, and observable reality. It avoids value judgments (good/bad) and focuses on “what is.”
Method: It relies on observation, statistical data, and verification.
Thinkers: Arthur Bentley, Charles Merriam, and David Easton.

C. Political Theory as History

Some scholars, like George Sabine, argue that political theory is essentially historical. It is the history of how different ages solved their political problems. To understand a theory (e.g., Machiavelli’s The Prince), one must understand the historical time in which it was written (Renaissance Italy).

3. The Scope of Political Theory

The scope of political theory is vast and expanding. It can be broadly categorized into the following areas:

1. The State and Government: Traditionally, this was the core. Theory examines the origin, nature, and purpose of the state. It studies the organs of government (Legislature, Executive, Judiciary) and their relationships.

2. Power, Authority, and Legitimacy: Modern theory shifts focus from “institutions” to “power.” It asks: Who gets what, when, and how? It distinguishes between brute Force (power without right) and Authority (power recognized as legitimate).

3. Political Concepts (Ideals): It clarifies the meaning of fundamental concepts used in political discourse, such as:

Liberty: Negative vs. Positive liberty.
Equality: Equality of opportunity vs. Equality of outcome.
Justice: Procedural vs. Distributive justice (Rawls).
Rights: Natural rights vs. Legal rights.

4. Political Ideologies: It studies the “isms” that drive political action: Liberalism, Marxism, Fascism, Feminism, Environmentalism, and Post-colonialism.

5. Political Behaviour: It studies how individuals and groups actually behave in politics—voting patterns, political culture, and socialization.

4. Evolution of Political Theory

Political theory has evolved through distinctive stages, mirroring the changing concerns of humanity.

A. Classical Political Theory (Greek & Roman)

Period: 5th Century BC – 5th Century AD.
Focus: The search for the “Good Life” and the “Ideal State.”
Key Idea: The state is a natural and moral institution. Ethics and politics are inseparable.
Thinkers:
- Plato: Proposed the “Philosopher King” and the ideal Republic.
- Aristotle: The “Father of Political Science,” who classified constitutions based on empirical observation.

B. Medieval Political Theory

Period: 5th Century – 15th Century.
Focus: The relationship between Church and State (Theology).
Key Idea: All authority comes from God. The Pope (spiritual power) is superior to the King (temporal power).
Thinkers: St. Augustine (City of God), St. Thomas Aquinas (Synthesized Aristotle with Christianity).

C. Modern Political Theory (The Nation-State Era)

Period: 16th Century – 19th Century.
Focus: Sovereignty, Secularism, and Rights.
Key Idea: Politics was separated from religion (Machiavelli). The rise of the Social Contract (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau) shifted the focus to the individual and their rights against the state.
Thinkers: Machiavelli (Power), Hobbes (Order), Locke (Property/Rights), Marx (Class Struggle).

D. Contemporary Political Theory (20th Century onwards)

Period: 1900 – Present.
Two Phases:
1. The Decline: In the mid-20th century, the rise of Positivism and Behavioralism led to claims that “Political Theory is Dead” (Cobban/Laslett) because it was too philosophical and unscientific.
2. The Revival: In the 1970s, thinkers like John Rawls (A Theory of Justice) revived normative theory. Today, theory focuses on multiculturalism, feminism, and critical theory.

5. Traditional Political Theory

A. Definition and Overview

Traditional Political Theory refers to the body of thought that dominated political analysis from the time of the Ancient Greeks (Plato/Aristotle) up until the early 20th century (before World War II).

Core Focus: It focuses on the Study of the State and Government.
Nature: It is primarily Normative and Prescriptive. It tells us what the state ought to be, rather than just analyzing what the state is.
Goal: To define the ultimate values of political life, such as Justice, Liberty, and the Good Life.

B. Characteristics of Traditional Theory

Idealism: It deals with “ideal” situations (e.g., Plato’s Ideal Republic) rather than reality.
Value-Laden: It is not value-free. It openly promotes certain values (democracy, morality) as superior.
Prescriptive: It acts like a doctor prescribing a cure; it offers solutions to political problems based on morality.
Static: It focuses on legal structures which do not change often, ignoring the dynamic behavior of voters or leaders.
Euro-centric: It is largely limited to the study of Western institutions (Europe and America).

6. The Traditional Approaches

The “Traditional Approach” is not one single method, but a collection of methods that emphasize values, history, and institutions over scientific data.

A. The Philosophical Approach

This is the oldest and most dominant approach, often identified with Plato, Rousseau, Kant, and Hegel.

Method: It is speculative. The thinker uses logic and reason to build a theory in their mind, deducing conclusions from fundamental assumptions about human nature.
Focus: It seeks the Ethical Basis of politics. It asks: “What is the purpose of the state?” or “Why should I obey the law?”
Example: Plato’s Republic. Plato didn’t survey Athens to see how people lived; he used philosophy to imagine how they should live in a perfect state ruled by a Philosopher King.
Critique: It is often divorced from reality (Utopian).

B. The Historical Approach

This approach believes that political theory is essentially history. It assumes you cannot understand the present without understanding the past. Major proponents include George Sabine, Machiavelli, and Montesquieu.

Method: It analyzes historical documents, treaties, and the evolution of institutions over time.
Focus: It views political institutions as a product of history, culture, and tradition.
Example: Machiavelli studied Roman history to write The Prince, extracting lessons on how a ruler should behave. Sabine famously said, “Political Theory is the history of political thought.”
Critique: It risks falling into “Historicism”—assuming that history has a predetermined path or destiny.

C. The Legal Approach

This approach became popular in the 19th century with the rise of the modern Nation-State and constitutionalism. Proponents include John Austin, Dicey, and Bentham.

Method: It treats the State as a juridical (legal) person. It analyzes politics through the lens of laws, constitutions, and sovereignty.
Focus: It cares about formal rights, the legal powers of the President vs. the Prime Minister, and the independence of the Judiciary.
Example: John Austin’s Theory of Sovereignty, which defines law as the “command of the sovereign.”
Critique: It is too narrow. It ignores the “informal” forces of politics (like pressure groups, protests, or money in politics) that influence laws.

D. The Institutional Approach

This approach focuses on the formal structures of government. It was the dominant method in American political science in the early 20th century (e.g., Herman Finer, James Bryce).

Method: It describes and compares the organs of government (Legislature, Executive, Judiciary).
Focus: It asks questions like: “How does the US Senate differ from the British House of Lords?” or “What are the powers of the President?”
Example: Studying the Constitution to understand how a bill becomes a law.
Critique: It is merely descriptive. It explains the engine of the car (the institutions) but not the driver (the people/behavior) or the fuel (power).

7. Critical Evaluation of Traditional Political Theory

By the mid-20th century, the Traditional Approach faced severe criticism, leading to the “Behavioral Revolution.”

Weaknesses (The Case Against):

Unscientific: It relied on arm-chair speculation rather than empirical data. It lacked the rigour of natural sciences.
Too Abstract: It focused so much on “Ideals” (what ought to be) that it ignored “Reality” (what is).
Static: It studied institutions as fixed structures, ignoring the dynamic processes of change (revolution, lobbying).
Western Bias: It completely ignored the political systems of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

Strengths (The Defense):

Guardian of Values: Without normative theory, politics becomes soulless. We need concepts like Justice and Liberty to judge whether a government is good or bad. Science can tell us how to build a nuclear bomb; only Political Theory can tell us why we shouldn’t use it.
Holistic: It looks at the bigger picture of human existence, whereas modern science often gets lost in tiny, irrelevant statistics.
Resilience: Despite being declared “dead” in the 1950s, Traditional Theory has made a massive comeback (e.g., John Rawls), proving that humans always crave moral guidance in politics.

8. Conclusion

Political Theory has traveled a long journey from the philosophical speculations of Plato to the empirical data analysis of modern times.

Traditional Political Theory (the Traditional Approach) laid the foundation. It gave us the vocabulary of politics: Democracy, Justice, Rights, and Liberty. Its method was philosophical, historical, and institutional.
While it was criticized for being unscientific and idealistic, it remains indispensable. As long as humans ask the question “What is the Good Life?”, Traditional Political Theory will remain relevant.