Introduction

India adopted a democratic and secular constitutional framework after independence in 1947. The Constitution established equal citizenship and protected freedom of religion. Nevertheless, communal politics did not disappear with independence. It continued in different forms and developed in response to changing political, social and historical circumstances.

In the early decades after independence, communal political forces remained relatively constrained within the broader framework of secular nationalism. From the mid-1980s onwards, however, religious identity became increasingly prominent in political mobilisation and public debate. The nature and intensity of communal politics have varied across regions and periods. OUP Academic+2

1. Everyday Communalism and Religious Prejudice

Everyday communalism is one of the most common and less visible forms of communal politics. It exists in ordinary social attitudes, beliefs and behaviour.

Its expressions include:

• Stereotypes and prejudices about other religious communities.
• The belief that one’s own religion is superior to others.
• Suspicion towards people belonging to different religious groups.
• Discriminatory social behaviour based on religious identity.
• The circulation of rumours and hostile narratives about other communities.

Such attitudes may exist even in the absence of organised political activity or communal violence. However, they can create a social environment in which communal mobilisation becomes easier.

2. Majoritarian Communalism

Majoritarian communalism refers to a political tendency in which the majority religious community is presented as the principal or defining basis of national identity and political authority. It may seek to establish the cultural, political or institutional dominance of the majority community.

Its principal characteristics include:

• Treating the majority religion as the central marker of national identity.
• Presenting minority religious identities as less compatible with national culture.
• Demanding that public institutions and policies reflect the preferences of the majority community.
• Questioning the equal place of minority communities in national life.

Majoritarian politics becomes communal when numerical majority is used to justify unequal citizenship, exclusion or the political subordination of religious minorities. Democratic majority rule, by contrast, must remain subject to constitutional rights and equal citizenship.

3. Minority Communalism and Separatist Tendencies

Minority communalism refers to political mobilisation that treats a religious minority as a homogeneous political community with interests separate from, or opposed to, those of other communities.

In some historical situations, such mobilisation has taken the form of demands for separate political arrangements, territorial autonomy or even a separate sovereign homeland.

However, it is important to distinguish separatist communalism from legitimate minority-rights movements. Demands for religious freedom, cultural protection, equal representation and protection against discrimination are compatible with democracy when pursued within constitutional principles. They should not automatically be described as communalism.

The political character of a movement depends on its objectives, methods and attitude towards equal citizenship and other communities.

4. Electoral Communalism and Religious Political Mobilisation

Electoral communalism occurs when religious identity is used as a major instrument for gaining political support during elections.

Political mobilisation may involve:

• Appeals to voters on the basis of religious identity.
• Use of religious symbols, places and leaders during campaigns.
• Presenting elections as a contest between religious communities.
• Creating fear about the political or cultural future of a community.
• Portraying political opponents as threats to a particular religion.

Such practices can shift public debate away from issues such as employment, education, development and public services towards religious divisions.

The use of religious identity in political discussion is not automatically communal. It becomes communal when it promotes hostility, discrimination or unequal political rights on religious grounds. SATHEE+1

5. Communalism through Political Organisations and Movements

Communal politics can also operate through political parties, religious organisations, pressure groups and social movements.

Such organisations may seek to consolidate support around a particular religious identity. They may influence public opinion through speeches, publications, campaigns, religious symbols and historical narratives.

Their activities become communal when they promote the idea that political interests are determined exclusively by religion or that other religious communities are inherently hostile.

At the same time, religious organisations may legitimately participate in public life, advocate social reform or defend religious freedom. Their religious character alone does not make them communal.

6. Secessionist Communalism

Secessionist communalism represents an extreme form of identity-based political mobilisation. It emerges when a religious community is defined as a separate political nation and demands separation from the existing state or the creation of a sovereign homeland.

In post-independence India, the demand for Khalistan, associated with a section of the Sikh separatist movement, became a major example of separatist politics. The movement developed in a complex historical and political context, particularly during the 1970s and 1980s, and was accompanied by militancy and serious violence.

It is necessary to distinguish the separatist movement from the Sikh community as a whole. The political demands of particular organisations or groups cannot be treated as the views of all members of a religious community.

7. Welfare-oriented or Protective Communal Claims

Some academic discussions identify a form of communal politics in which religious communities make collective demands for state assistance, protection or special attention to address perceived social and economic disadvantages.

Such demands may concern education, employment, cultural institutions, language, representation or the protection of religious practices.

However, collective demands made by a religious community are not necessarily communal. Minority protection and measures to address social disadvantage can be legitimate democratic claims. They become communal when they are based on hostility towards other communities, deny equal citizenship or present public resources as the exclusive entitlement of one religious group.

Therefore, the term welfare-oriented communalism should be used cautiously and with attention to the specific political context. old.mu.ac.in+1

8. Communal Violence: Riots and Mass Violence

Communal violence is one of the most destructive manifestations of communal politics. It involves violence directed against people, property or institutions on the basis of religious identity.

Its forms include:

• Communal riots involving clashes between religious groups.
• Targeted attacks against members of a particular community.
• Organised mass violence or pogrom-like attacks.
• Mob violence and killings.
• Destruction of religious places, homes and businesses.
• Forced displacement and the creation of conditions of insecurity.

Post-independence India has experienced several major episodes of communal violence. Examples include the anti-Sikh violence of 1984, the violence following the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992, and the Gujarat violence of 2002. These events occurred in different political and regional contexts and should be studied individually rather than treated as identical incidents. OUP Academic+2

9. Institutional and State-linked Communalism

Communalism may extend beyond social attitudes and political campaigns into public institutions and administrative practices.

It can appear when public authorities or institutions:

• Apply laws or administrative procedures selectively on religious grounds.
• Fail to protect particular communities from threats or violence.
• Discriminate in access to public services or opportunities.
• Tolerate or encourage exclusionary practices.
• Allow religious identity to influence the impartial delivery of justice.

The Oxford Handbook’s discussion of communalism highlights that discriminatory practices may be carried out by state institutions, non-state organisations or individual citizens. It also explains that communal ideology can shape public policy and law when it influences those exercising political power. OUP Academic

10. Communalism through Historical Narratives and Cultural Symbols

Another form of communal politics involves the selective interpretation of history and the political use of cultural or religious symbols.

Historical rulers, religious sites, past conflicts and cultural practices may be presented in ways that reinforce the idea of permanent hostility between religious communities.

This form of mobilisation can:

• Glorify one community’s historical achievements while depicting another as an enemy.
• Present historical conflicts as continuing contemporary disputes.
• Use religious sites and symbols as instruments of political mobilisation.
• Reinforce collective memories of victimhood and hostility.

A balanced understanding of history is essential because historical societies were complex and cannot be reduced to permanent conflicts between religious groups.

11. Contemporary Forms: Digital Communalism and Online Polarisation

With the expansion of digital communication, communal narratives can circulate rapidly through social media, messaging platforms and online networks.

Contemporary expressions include:

• Circulation of unverified messages about religious communities.
• Manipulated photographs and videos.
• Online hate speech and communal stereotyping.
• Coordinated campaigns that create fear or hostility.
• Digital amplification of rumours about religious practices or incidents.

Digital platforms can also be used to promote interfaith dialogue and correct misinformation. Their impact depends on how users, organisations, media institutions and public authorities employ them.

Historical Development in Post-independent India

The forms of communal politics have changed over time. A broad historical outline is useful:

Period	Broad political developments
1947–mid-1960s	Consolidation of constitutional secularism and democratic institutions; communal tensions continued but organised communal forces remained relatively constrained in national politics.
Mid-1960s–1980s	Revival of communal mobilisation in some regions, recurring communal tensions and increasing political use of religious identity.
Late 1980s–1990s	Greater prominence of religious mobilisation in national politics, including the Ram Janmabhoomi movement, the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992 and subsequent communal violence.
2000s onwards	Continued forms of communal mobilisation and violence, alongside debates about secularism, minority rights, national identity, citizenship and the role of state institutions.
Digital era	Faster circulation of communal narratives and misinformation through online platforms, alongside new possibilities for fact-checking and civic engagement.

This is a broad analytical periodisation, not a claim that communalism was absent in the earlier decades or uniform in every region. OUP Academic+3

Constitutional and Democratic Perspective

The Constitution of India provides a framework for addressing communal politics through equal citizenship, religious freedom and non-discrimination.

Important provisions include:

• Article 14: Equality before the law and equal protection of the laws.
• Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds including religion.
• Article 16: Equality of opportunity in public employment.
• Articles 25–28: Freedom of conscience and freedom to profess, practise and propagate religion, subject to constitutional limitations.
• Articles 29–30: Protection of cultural and educational rights, including the rights of minorities.
• Article 51A(e): Fundamental duty to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood transcending religious, linguistic, regional and sectional diversities.

These provisions establish that religious freedom and equal citizenship must coexist. A democratic state cannot allow the political dominance of one religious community to undermine the constitutional rights of others.

Critical Assessment

The variants of communal politics in post-independent India reveal that communalism is not limited to riots or organised violence. It can begin with everyday prejudice, develop through political mobilisation, become institutionalised through discriminatory practices and, in extreme situations, lead to organised violence.

Majoritarian, minority-separatist, electoral, welfare-oriented and violent expressions should not be treated as interchangeable. Their political objectives, social contexts, organisational capacities and consequences may differ considerably. In particular, legitimate demands for minority protection or equal rights must be distinguished from exclusionary communal politics.

Conclusion

Communal politics in post-independent India has taken multiple forms, including everyday prejudice, majoritarian assertion, separatist mobilisation, electoral appeals, political organisation, institutional discrimination, historical propaganda and communal violence. These forms have changed with India’s political and social development. Their common feature is the use of religious identity as a basis for political division or unequal claims. Strengthening constitutional secularism, equal citizenship, impartial institutions, historical understanding and democratic dialogue is essential for protecting India’s plural social fabric.