1. Introduction

The rise of Hindutva politics is one of the most significant developments in contemporary Indian politics. Since the late twentieth century, Hindutva has moved from the ideological and organisational margins into the mainstream of electoral competition, political mobilisation and public policy debates. Its influence can be seen in the growth of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the expansion of organisations associated with the Sangh Parivar, the prominence of religious and cultural symbols in political campaigns, and debates about national identity, secularism and citizenship.

Hindutva is generally understood as a political-cultural conception of Indian nationhood that gives central importance to Hindu civilisational identity. It is not identical to Hinduism, which encompasses diverse religious beliefs, philosophical traditions, sects and practices. Nor should all Hindus be assumed to support Hindutva politics.

The contemporary rise of Hindutva must be understood through several connected developments: the historical legacy of Hindu nationalist organisations, the Ram Janmabhoomi movement, the electoral expansion of the BJP, leadership and political communication, social and economic changes, and the growing importance of identity-based political mobilisation.

2. Meaning and Concept of Hindutva Politics

Hindutva politics refers to political mobilisation and state-oriented programmes informed by the idea that Hindu civilisation and cultural identity should occupy a central place in defining the Indian nation.

The term Hindutva was systematically articulated by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in his 1923 work Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu? Savarkar distinguished Hindutva from Hinduism and presented it as a broader cultural, historical and national identity.

In contemporary politics, Hindutva is associated with several themes:

1. Cultural nationalism: Defining Indian nationhood through the historical and cultural heritage associated with Hindu civilisation.
2. National identity: Emphasising a shared civilisational identity as a basis of national unity.
3. Religious and cultural symbolism: Using religious narratives, festivals, sacred sites and historical memories in public political mobilisation.
4. Organisational mobilisation: Building networks of political, cultural, educational and social organisations.
5. Political representation: Seeking electoral support through appeals to Hindu identity and cultural nationalism.
6. State policy and governance: Debating or implementing policies concerning religious institutions, personal laws, citizenship, education and cultural heritage.

The interpretation of Hindutva differs among its supporters, critics and academic scholars. It is therefore important to examine its actual political practices and institutional consequences rather than treating it as a single, unchanging doctrine.

3. Historical Background of Its Contemporary Rise

The contemporary expansion of Hindutva has roots in developments that preceded the 1990s.

3.1 Early ideological and organisational foundations

During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, religious reform movements, cultural revivalism and debates about Indian identity contributed to new forms of collective consciousness. However, social and religious reform movements should not automatically be equated with political Hindutva.

Important developments included:

• The articulation of Hindutva by V. D. Savarkar in 1923.
• The establishment of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) by K. B. Hedgewar in 1925.
• The development of the Hindu Mahasabha as a political organisation.
• The establishment of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh in 1951 under Syama Prasad Mookerjee.

These developments created ideological, organisational and political foundations for the later expansion of Hindu nationalist politics.

3.2 Formation of the BJP in 1980

The Bharatiya Janata Party was established in 1980 following the dissolution of the Janata Party arrangement and the political separation of former Jana Sangh members. Initially, the BJP attempted to develop a broader political identity. Over time, however, Hindutva and cultural nationalism became increasingly prominent in its political mobilisation.

3.3 The Ram Janmabhoomi movement

The Ram Janmabhoomi movement became a major turning point in the expansion of Hindutva politics during the late 1980s and early 1990s. The movement demanded the construction of a Ram temple at the disputed site in Ayodhya.

The mobilisation brought religious symbolism, historical claims and electoral politics into close interaction. The demolition of the Babri Masjid on 6 December 1992 and the communal violence that followed had far-reaching consequences for Indian politics, secularism and inter-community relations.

The movement significantly increased the national visibility of the BJP and helped transform Hindutva into a major electoral issue.

4. Major Factors Behind the Contemporary Rise of Hindutva Politics

4.1 Organisational network of the Sangh Parivar

The Sangh Parivar refers to a broad network of organisations associated with the RSS. These organisations operate in different fields, including politics, education, labour, student activities, religious mobilisation and social service.

The RSS has contributed to the expansion of Hindutva through:

• Regular organisational activities and local branches.
• Cadre development and ideological training.
• Social and cultural programmes.
• Coordination with organisations working in different sectors.
• Long-term community-level mobilisation.

The BJP’s relationship with the wider Sangh Parivar has been an important factor in its organisational reach, although the political party and the RSS are distinct organisations with different institutional roles.

4.2 Electoral expansion of the BJP

The BJP’s electoral growth has been central to the rise of Hindutva politics.

Year	BJP’s Lok Sabha seats	Political significance
1984	2	Limited initial parliamentary presence
1991	120	Major expansion during the Ram Janmabhoomi mobilisation
1996	161	Emergence as the largest party in the Lok Sabha
1998	182	Formation of a BJP-led coalition government
1999	182	Return to power through the NDA
2014	282	First single-party majority for the BJP
2019	303	Consolidation of parliamentary dominance
2024	240	Largest party, but dependent on NDA allies to form the government

The figures demonstrate that the BJP’s rise was neither sudden nor linear. It developed through several phases of political mobilisation, coalition-building and electoral expansion. Carnegie Endowment+2

4.3 Leadership and political communication

Leadership has played an important role in the contemporary expansion of Hindutva politics. Narendra Modi’s political leadership since 2014 has combined strong central leadership, national-security themes, welfare programmes, development narratives and cultural-nationalist messaging.

Political communication has increasingly relied on:

• Television and digital media.
• Social media platforms.
• Large public rallies.
• Direct communication between political leaders and citizens.
• National symbols and religious-cultural references.

This style of communication has helped the BJP build a strong national political identity. At the same time, critics have raised concerns about polarisation, the treatment of dissent and the relationship between political messaging and democratic debate.

4.4 Religious and cultural mobilisation

Religious symbols, festivals, pilgrimage centres, temples and historical narratives have become important elements of political communication. Ayodhya has been particularly significant.

The consecration ceremony of the Ram temple in Ayodhya in January 2024 became a major cultural and political event. Supporters viewed it as the fulfilment of a long-standing religious and cultural aspiration. Critics raised questions about the relationship between religious symbolism, state institutions and constitutional secularism.

4.5 Caste and social coalition-building

Hindutva politics has also sought to build a broad political coalition across caste groups. The BJP has attempted to attract support among upper castes, Other Backward Classes (OBCs), Dalits and sections of tribal communities through electoral strategies, welfare programmes and political representation.

This process has not eliminated caste-based inequalities or political competition. Rather, it has created new combinations of caste identity, religious identity, welfare politics and electoral mobilisation. The relationship between Hindutva and caste politics remains an important subject of contemporary political research. Taylor & Francis Online+1

4.6 Welfare politics and development narratives

The BJP’s electoral appeal cannot be explained by Hindutva alone. Welfare schemes, infrastructure development, direct benefit transfers, housing, sanitation, cooking-gas connections and other public programmes have also contributed to its political support.

This combination of welfare delivery, leadership appeal and cultural nationalism is an important feature of contemporary BJP politics. It illustrates how identity politics can operate alongside material policy concerns rather than replacing them.

4.7 National security and historical memory

National security, terrorism, border conflicts and the memory of historical invasions or colonial rule are often incorporated into nationalist political narratives. These themes can strengthen appeals to national unity and political leadership.

However, the use of history and security issues in electoral mobilisation can also generate controversy, particularly when historical grievances are used to deepen hostility between religious communities.

4.8 Digital media and political mobilisation

Digital platforms have changed the methods through which Hindutva politics is communicated and mobilised. Social media allows political organisations and supporters to circulate messages, videos, images and interpretations of historical events rapidly.

Digital communication can increase political participation and public debate. However, misinformation, manipulated content, online harassment and communal polarisation are serious concerns in the wider digital political environment.

5. The Contemporary Scenario: Major Developments

5.1 The Modi era since 2014

The 2014 general election marked a major turning point. The BJP won 282 seats and formed a government with a single-party majority. This was the first time since 1984 that a single party had secured a majority in the Lok Sabha.

In 2019, the BJP increased its tally to 303 seats. During this period, Hindutva-related themes became increasingly prominent in national political debates, alongside development, welfare, leadership and national security.

Several developments became central to public discussion:

• The constitutional changes concerning Jammu and Kashmir in August 2019, including the effective removal of Article 370’s special-status provisions.
• The enactment of the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019, and the notification of its rules in March 2024.
• The debate over the Uniform Civil Code.
• The construction and consecration of the Ram temple in Ayodhya.
• Public controversies concerning religious conversion, personal laws, religious processions and places of worship.

These developments have been interpreted differently by political supporters, opposition parties, legal scholars and civil society organisations.

5.2 The Citizenship (Amendment) Act

The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 (CAA) amended India’s citizenship law to provide an expedited path to citizenship for specified non-Muslim migrants from Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan who entered India by the prescribed date.

The government has defended the law as a humanitarian measure for persecuted religious minorities in neighbouring countries. Critics have argued that the exclusion of Muslims from the specified religious categories raises questions about equality and the secular character of citizenship.

The rules for implementing the Act were notified in March 2024. The debate illustrates the wider disagreement over the relationship between religion, citizenship and constitutional equality.

5.3 Ayodhya and the Ram temple

The Supreme Court delivered its judgment in the Ayodhya title dispute on 9 November 2019. It awarded the disputed site for the construction of a temple and directed that an alternative five-acre plot be provided to the Sunni Central Waqf Board for a mosque.

The consecration of the Ram temple took place on 22 January 2024. The event became an important symbol in contemporary Hindu nationalist politics and a subject of wider debate about religious heritage, constitutional institutions and secularism.

5.4 The 2024 general election: Continuity and constraint

The 2024 Lok Sabha election produced a significant political result. The BJP won 240 seats, fewer than the 272 required for a single-party majority. However, its pre-election alliance, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), secured enough seats to form the government, and Narendra Modi began a third consecutive term as Prime Minister.

The result demonstrated two important trends:

1. Continuity: The BJP remained the largest political party and retained a central position in national politics.
2. Constraint: The absence of a single-party majority increased the importance of coalition partners and parliamentary negotiation.

Political analysis of the election suggests that the result represented a setback to the BJP’s previous level of dominance, but not the disappearance of its national political influence. University of California Press+2

5.5 Hindutva under the third Modi government

The third Modi government, formed in June 2024, operates in a coalition framework. This has created a political environment in which the BJP retains considerable influence but must also manage the interests of its allies.

Research published in 2025 and 2026 describes contemporary Hindutva as a political project that continues to influence governance and public life, while also facing electoral, regional and social constraints. Its expansion is uneven across states and social groups. Taylor & Francis Online+1

6. Hindutva Politics and the Indian Constitution

One of the most important debates surrounding Hindutva concerns its relationship with India’s constitutional framework.

The Constitution establishes India as a democratic republic based on equality, liberty, religious freedom and equal citizenship. The word secular was inserted into the Preamble by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment in 1976, although constitutional protections for religious freedom and equality existed from the beginning.

The following provisions are especially relevant:

Constitutional provision	Subject
Article 14	Equality before the law and equal protection of the laws
Article 15	Prohibition of discrimination on specified grounds, including religion
Article 16	Equality of opportunity in public employment
Article 25	Freedom of conscience and freedom to profess, practise and propagate religion, subject to constitutional limitations
Articles 26–28	Religious denominations, religious affairs and religious instruction
Articles 29–30	Cultural and educational rights, including protections for religious and linguistic minorities

The central constitutional question is whether the cultural identity of the majority community can become the defining basis of national belonging without weakening equal citizenship and the rights of minorities.

Supporters of Hindutva often argue that cultural nationalism is compatible with national unity and constitutional democracy. Critics argue that majoritarian political practices can weaken pluralism, minority protections and the secular character of the Indian state.

7. Impact of Hindutva Politics on Indian Democracy

7.1 Transformation of electoral competition

Hindutva has become an important axis of electoral competition. Political parties increasingly address questions of religious identity, cultural nationalism, national security and historical memory in their campaigns.

7.2 Reorganisation of political identity

The growth of Hindutva has encouraged the political construction of a broader Hindu identity across caste and regional differences. However, caste, class, language and regional identities continue to influence voting behaviour and political competition.

7.3 Debate over secularism and pluralism

The rise of Hindutva has intensified debates about the meaning of secularism in India. The central issue is not simply the public presence of religion, but whether the state treats citizens and communities equally regardless of religious identity.

7.4 Minority rights and social relations

Critics have raised concerns about political exclusion, communal polarisation, hate speech and the security of religious minorities. Supporters dispute some of these assessments and argue that government policies should be judged on their stated objectives and actual implementation.

A balanced academic assessment should distinguish between documented incidents, political allegations, legal findings and broader interpretations.

7.5 Federalism and regional variation

Hindutva politics does not develop uniformly across India. Its political influence varies according to regional histories, language, caste configurations, local leadership and the strength of regional parties.

The BJP’s electoral performance in the 2024 general election also demonstrated the continuing importance of regional political dynamics. Studies of the post-2024 period emphasise that Hindutva’s influence is expanding or contracting unevenly across different states and social groups. Taylor & Francis Online+1

7.6 Institutions and public discourse

The role of constitutional institutions, universities, media, civil society and the judiciary has become central to debates about Hindutva and democracy. Questions include institutional independence, freedom of expression, the protection of dissent and the boundaries of political authority.

8. Major Criticisms and Supporters’ Arguments

Arguments advanced by supporters

1. Hindutva promotes cultural self-confidence and recognition of India’s civilisational heritage.
2. It provides a framework for national unity through a shared cultural identity.
3. It seeks to correct what supporters regard as historical neglect of Hindu traditions.
4. It has created an organised political and social network with a significant electoral presence.
5. Its supporters argue that cultural nationalism can coexist with democratic institutions and constitutional government.

Major criticisms

1. Majoritarianism: Critics argue that defining national identity primarily through the majority’s religious-cultural tradition can weaken equal citizenship.
2. Minority rights: Concerns arise about the political and social inclusion of Muslims, Christians and other religious minorities.
3. Secularism: Critics question whether the state can remain religiously neutral when political identity is closely linked to a majority religion.
4. Communal polarisation: Religious mobilisation may intensify social divisions and inter-community tensions.
5. Historical interpretation: The political use of historical grievances may simplify complex histories and reinforce antagonistic identities.
6. Institutional autonomy: Critics raise concerns about the independence of public institutions and the protection of dissent.

These arguments should be assessed through evidence, constitutional principles and the actual conduct of political institutions rather than through generalisations about entire religious communities.

9. Conclusion

The rise of Hindutva politics represents a major transformation in India’s contemporary political landscape. From its ideological and organisational foundations in the early twentieth century, it developed into a powerful political movement through the expansion of the RSS network, the growth of the BJP, the Ram Janmabhoomi movement and changing patterns of electoral mobilisation.

Since 2014, Hindutva has become increasingly influential in political communication, public policy debates and the understanding of national identity. The 2024 general election, however, demonstrated that this influence operates within a competitive democratic system: the BJP remained the largest party but required the support of its NDA allies to form the government.

The contemporary scenario is therefore characterised by both consolidation and contestation. Hindutva remains a major force in Indian politics, but its influence varies across regions and social groups and is subject to electoral competition, constitutional scrutiny and public debate.

A comprehensive understanding requires examining both its political appeal and the questions it raises about secularism, pluralism, equal citizenship, minority rights and the future of Indian democracy.