1. Introduction

Hindu nationalism is one of the most influential and debated ideological currents in modern Indian politics. It developed through a historical process involving religious and social reform movements, colonial-era identity formation, nationalist organisations and political mobilisation. Its central concern is the relationship between Hindu identity, Indian civilisation, national belonging and the character of the Indian state.

Hindu nationalism should not be understood simply as religious devotion or the practice of Hinduism. Hinduism is a diverse religious and philosophical tradition, whereas Hindu nationalism is a modern political ideology that places Hindu identity and civilisation at the centre of its understanding of the Indian nation.

The ideology is closely associated with the concept of Hindutva, particularly as articulated by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in the twentieth century. Over time, organisations such as the Hindu Mahasabha, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the Bharatiya Jana Sangh and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) played important roles in its organisational and political development. However, these organisations have not always followed identical strategies or political approaches. OUP Academic+1

2. Meaning and Concept of Hindu Nationalism

Hindu nationalism refers to a political and cultural understanding of India in which Hindu civilisation, historical traditions and collective identity are considered central to the formation of the Indian nation.

Its major ideological elements include:

1. Cultural nationalism: The view that India’s national identity is deeply rooted in Hindu civilisation and cultural traditions.
2. Civilisational identity: Emphasis on a shared historical and cultural heritage as a basis for national unity.
3. Hindutva: A political-cultural conception of Hindu identity that goes beyond religious belief and ritual practices.
4. National unity: The effort to unite diverse Hindu communities through a common national identity.
5. Cultural continuity: The emphasis on preserving and promoting traditions, symbols, languages and historical memories associated with Hindu civilisation.

Hindu nationalism is not a single, unchanging doctrine. Its interpretations, political strategies and organisational expressions have changed across different historical periods.

3. Historical Background: Nineteenth-Century Developments

The roots of modern Hindu nationalism can be examined in the context of nineteenth-century colonial India. British rule introduced new administrative institutions, modern education, print culture and political categories that influenced how communities understood their identities.

Several Hindu reform and revivalist movements emerged during this period. They sought to reform religious practices, strengthen Hindu society and respond to social and religious challenges.

Major movements and their contributions

a. Brahmo Samaj (1828)

Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the Brahmo Samaj promoted monotheism, rational thinking, social reform and opposition to practices such as sati. It was primarily a religious and social reform movement, not a Hindu nationalist political organisation.

b. Arya Samaj (1875)

Founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati, the Arya Samaj emphasised the authority of the Vedas and advocated social and religious reform. Its ideas about Vedic heritage, religious organisation and social consolidation later influenced sections of Hindu revivalist and nationalist thought.

c. Cultural revival and historical consciousness

The nineteenth-century growth of vernacular literature, public associations, religious reform and historical writing contributed to the development of modern forms of collective identity. These developments were diverse and cannot all be classified as Hindu nationalism.

It is therefore important to distinguish between Hindu social reform, religious revivalism and the later emergence of Hindu nationalism as an organised political ideology. Carnegie Endowment+1

4. Emergence of Organised Hindu Nationalism

The early twentieth century witnessed the gradual development of organised Hindu political mobilisation. Communal tensions, colonial political arrangements, debates over representation and competing visions of nationalism contributed to this process.

4.1 Hindu Mahasabha

The Hindu Mahasabha emerged from earlier Hindu political associations and developed into an organised political platform in the early twentieth century. It sought to articulate Hindu political interests and promote Hindu unity.

The organisation became more prominent during the 1920s and 1930s. Under the leadership of V. D. Savarkar, it increasingly advocated a political conception of Hindu nationhood.

4.2 V. D. Savarkar and the Idea of Hindutva

A major ideological milestone was Savarkar’s publication of Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu? in 1923. The text developed a conception of Hindu identity based on common territory, cultural heritage and historical belonging.

Savarkar distinguished between Hinduism as a religion and Hindutva as a broader political-cultural identity. In his formulation, the idea of the Hindu nation was associated with a shared homeland, common ancestry and civilisational culture.

His conception of national belonging has been debated because it gives a central position to Hindu identity and raises questions about the status of communities whose sacred religious centres lie outside India, particularly Muslims and Christians.

4.3 Establishment of the RSS (1925)

The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh was founded by Keshav Baliram Hedgewar in 1925 at Nagpur. It sought to organise Hindu society through disciplined volunteer activity, ideological training and local branches known as shakhas.

The RSS concentrated on long-term social and organisational mobilisation rather than functioning initially as a conventional electoral political party. Its organisational network later became an important foundation for the wider Sangh Parivar.

Savarkar’s Hindutva and the RSS’s organisational approach were related developments, but they were not identical in their methods or institutional structures. OUP Academic+2

5. Hindu Nationalism during the Freedom Struggle

During the freedom movement, different political groups advanced different conceptions of Indian nationhood.

The Indian National Congress generally promoted an inclusive territorial nationalism that sought to unite Indians across religious, linguistic and regional differences. Gandhi’s political approach emphasised interreligious cooperation, while leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru supported a secular and democratic conception of the nation.

Hindu nationalist organisations, on the other hand, placed greater emphasis on Hindu cultural identity and the political organisation of Hindus. Their relationship with the anti-colonial movement was complex and varied across organisations and individuals.

The Hindu Mahasabha participated in electoral and political activities, while the RSS concentrated primarily on organisational expansion and social mobilisation. It is therefore historically inaccurate to treat all Hindu nationalist organisations as having followed one uniform strategy during the freedom struggle.

6. Hindu Nationalism after Independence

Indian independence in 1947 and the Partition fundamentally changed the political environment. The creation of Pakistan, communal violence and the displacement of millions of people intensified debates about citizenship, national identity and secularism.

6.1 Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi and the RSS Ban

Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on 30 January 1948 by Nathuram Godse, who had earlier been associated with Hindu nationalist circles. The government imposed a ban on the RSS in February 1948. The ban was lifted in July 1949 after the organisation agreed to certain conditions, including adopting a written constitution.

The assassination was a major political and moral crisis. However, historical analysis must distinguish the individual responsibility of the assassin from the legal and organisational questions concerning different groups.

6.2 Formation of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (1951)

The Bharatiya Jana Sangh was founded in 1951 under the leadership of Syama Prasad Mookerjee. It provided an electoral and parliamentary platform for Hindu nationalist politics.

The Jana Sangh advocated national integration, cultural nationalism and policies reflecting its ideological outlook. It gradually developed a political presence, particularly in northern India.

6.3 Hindu Nationalism and Democratic Politics

During the first decades after independence, the Congress dominated national politics. The Jana Sangh remained a relatively smaller political force but continued to build its organisation and electoral base.

The political development of Hindu nationalism during this period demonstrates how ideological movements can operate through both social organisations and parliamentary institutions.

7. From Jana Sangh to Bharatiya Janata Party

The Emergency of 1975–1977 and the subsequent formation of the Janata Party created a new political situation. The Jana Sangh merged into the Janata Party in 1977 along with other political groups opposed to the Emergency.

In 1980, following internal disagreements within the Janata Party, former Jana Sangh members established the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).

Initially, the BJP attempted to present a broader political programme. Subsequently, it increasingly emphasised cultural nationalism, national identity and Hindutva-related themes.

The BJP’s development marked an important transition in Hindu nationalism from an organisational and ideological movement into a major electoral force at the national level. Cambridge University Press+1

8. Rise of Hindu Nationalism in the 1980s and 1990s

The 1980s and 1990s witnessed a significant expansion of Hindu nationalist mobilisation.

8.1 Ram Janmabhoomi Movement

The Ram Janmabhoomi movement became a major focus of Hindu nationalist politics. It centred on the claim that the site of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya was the birthplace of Lord Rama and demanded the construction of a temple at the site.

The movement brought together religious organisations, political groups and large-scale public mobilisation. It transformed the nature of political debate around religion, history and national identity.

8.2 Demolition of the Babri Masjid (1992)

On 6 December 1992, the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya was demolished by a large gathering of kar sevaks. The event led to widespread communal violence in several parts of India and became a major turning point in the country’s political history.

The demolition intensified debates about secularism, religious mobilisation, constitutional values and the relationship between religion and state power.

8.3 Electoral Expansion

The BJP expanded its electoral influence during the 1990s. It became a central participant in coalition politics and formed governments at the Union level under Atal Bihari Vajpayee, including a full-term coalition government from 1999 to 2004.

This period demonstrated the growing ability of Hindu nationalist politics to operate within India’s parliamentary and coalition-based democratic system. OUP Academic+2

9. Hindu Nationalism in the Twenty-First Century

The twenty-first century has witnessed the increasing political and institutional influence of Hindu nationalism.

The BJP formed a majority government at the Union level in 2014 and was re-elected with a majority in 2019. It also returned to office in 2024 as the largest party in a coalition government.

During this period, issues associated with Hindutva, national identity, religious symbols, historical interpretation, citizenship and cultural policy have remained prominent in public debate.

The construction and inauguration of the Ram Mandir at Ayodhya in January 2024 became another significant moment in the political and cultural history of the movement.

The contemporary phase is characterised by the interaction of electoral politics, mass communication, social media, cultural organisations and debates over the meaning of Indian nationhood. Scholars differ in their interpretations of the movement’s impact on democratic institutions, minority rights and secularism. OUP Academic+2

10. Major Organisations Associated with Hindu Nationalism

Organisation	Year	Historical significance
Hindu Mahasabha	Early twentieth century; organised at the national level in 1915	Articulated Hindu political interests
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS)	1925	Organisational and ideological mobilisation
Bharatiya Jana Sangh	1951	Electoral and parliamentary expression
Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP)	1964	Religious and cultural mobilisation
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)	1980	Major electoral and governing political force

These organisations are associated with the wider Hindu nationalist movement, but they have distinct histories, structures and areas of activity.

11. Hindu Nationalism and Indian Secularism

One of the central debates in Indian politics concerns the relationship between Hindu nationalism and constitutional secularism.

The Constitution of India establishes a democratic political framework based on equality, religious freedom and equal citizenship. The Preamble describes India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. The word secular was inserted into the Preamble by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976, although constitutional guarantees of religious freedom and equality existed from the commencement of the Constitution.

Important constitutional provisions include:

• Article 14: Equality before the law and equal protection of the laws.
• Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on specified grounds, including religion.
• Article 16: Equality of opportunity in public employment.
• Article 25: Freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess, practise and propagate religion, subject to constitutional limitations.
• Articles 26–28: Provisions concerning religious denominations, religious instruction and related matters.
• Article 29: Protection of the interests of sections of citizens with distinct language, script or culture.
• Article 30: Rights of religious and linguistic minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.

The central constitutional question is whether national identity should be defined primarily through a particular religious-cultural tradition or through equal citizenship in a plural society.

12. Critical Assessment of Hindu Nationalism

Hindu nationalism has had a significant impact on India’s political and social development. Its historical significance can be assessed from several perspectives.

Positive claims made by its supporters

Supporters argue that Hindu nationalism:

1. Strengthens cultural awareness and civilisational identity.
2. Promotes the preservation of Hindu traditions and heritage.
3. Encourages national unity through a shared cultural framework.
4. Provides an organised platform for Hindu social and political mobilisation.
5. Challenges what they regard as selective approaches to secularism and historical interpretation.

Major criticisms and debates

Critics raise several concerns:

1. Religious majoritarianism: The possibility that the political preferences of the majority community may receive greater institutional priority.
2. Minority rights: Concerns that Muslims, Christians and other religious minorities may experience unequal treatment or exclusion.
3. Secularism: Debate over whether a religiously defined national identity is compatible with equal citizenship and constitutional secularism.
4. Historical interpretation: Disagreements over the use of historical narratives, symbols and memories for contemporary political mobilisation.
5. Social diversity: Concerns that an overarching Hindu identity may understate internal differences of caste, language, region, sect and social status.

It is also important to recognise that Hindu nationalism is internally diverse. Its supporters and organisations do not always agree on political priorities, social reform, caste relations or the meaning of cultural nationalism.

13. Conclusion

Hindu nationalism developed through a long historical process, beginning with nineteenth-century religious and social reform debates and taking a more organised political form in the early twentieth century. The articulation of Hindutva by V. D. Savarkar, the establishment of the RSS in 1925, the formation of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh in 1951 and the emergence of the BJP in 1980 were important milestones in its development.

Its expansion during the 1980s and 1990s and its growing electoral influence in the twenty-first century have made it a central force in Indian politics. At the same time, it has generated important debates about secularism, citizenship, pluralism, minority rights and the constitutional identity of India.

A historical understanding of Hindu nationalism therefore requires examining both its ideological development and its relationship with India’s democratic and constitutional framework.